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Activation of allergen-specific T helper 2 (Th2) cells and ILC2 cells leads to production of IL-13, IL-5, and IL-4. IL-4 promotes B cell synthesis of IgE. IL-5 is responsible for activation of eosinophils in the tissue. IL-13 induces airway...

Let’s take a closer look at the pathogenesis of psoriatic arthritis. Injury, infection, or other idiopathic reasons, activate the innate immune system, in this case, dendritic cells. These activated dendritic cells function as antigen pres...

The knee can be a site of chronic pain due to degeneration or mechanical damage to the area. The back can also experience pain due to disc herniation. The pinched nerve releases pro-inflammatory mediators such as nerve growth factor, histam...

Compared to estrogens or estradiol, SERMS comprise a structurally heterogeneous group of compounds that interact with intracellular estrogen receptors in a unique tissue specific manner. SERMs have been designed to elicit the beneficial asp...

What are biologics? Biological medicines (or biologics) are large and often complex proteins. Based on their molecular mass, biologics can be 200 to 1000 times larger than conventional chemical drugs. Conventional drugs are manufactured by...